Atta cephalotes

AntWiki: The Ants --- Online
Atta cephalotes
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Myrmicinae
Tribe: Attini
Genus: Atta
Species: A. cephalotes
Binomial name
Atta cephalotes
(Linnaeus, 1758)

Atta cephalotes casent0173617 profile 1.jpg

Atta cephalotes casent0173617 dorsal 1.jpg

Specimen Label

Subspecies
Synonyms

Wells et al. (2017) - Forms large colonies with millions of workers and nests that can cover more than 100 square meters (Weber 1982, Meyer et al. 2011). In secondary forests and at forest edges, they can reach very high densities and are often the dominant herbivore in the ecosystem (Farji-Brener and Illes 2000). While they are also present in primary forests, their colonies are most common in secondary or disturbed forests (Farji-Brener 2001). The large nests of Atta cephalotes have a strong effect on the leaf-litter arthropod community, adding to spatial heterogeneity within neotropical habitats.

Photo Gallery

  • Atta cephalotes major and minor workers. Photo by Piotr Naskrecki.
  • A busy trail of Atta cephalotes leafcutter ants at La Selva, Costa Rica. Photo by Alex Wild.
  • While large workers of Atta cephalotes carry leaf fragments, smaller workers ride along as guards. La Selva, Costa Rica. Photo by Alex Wild.

Identification

Distribution

Latitudinal Distribution Pattern

Latitudinal Range: 21.2166667° to -64.23°.

     
North
Temperate
North
Subtropical
Tropical South
Subtropical
South
Temperate

Distribution based on Regional Taxon Lists

Neotropical Region: Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Lesser Antilles, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Suriname (type locality), Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela.

Distribution based on AntMaps

AntMapLegend.png

Distribution based on AntWeb specimens

Check data from AntWeb

Countries Occupied

Number of countries occupied by this species based on AntWiki Regional Taxon Lists. In general, fewer countries occupied indicates a narrower range, while more countries indicates a more widespread species.
pChart

Biology

Explore-icon.png Explore Fungus Growing 
For additional details see Fungus growing ants.

A handful of ant species (approx. 275 out of the known 15,000 species) have developed the ability to cultivate fungus within their nests. In most species the fungus is used as the sole food source for the larvae and is an important resource for the adults as well. Additionally, in a limited number of cases, the fungus is used to construct part of the nest structure but is not as a food source.

These fungus-feeding species are limited to North and South America, extending from the pine barrens of New Jersey, United States, in the north (Trachymyrmex septentrionalis) to the cold deserts in Argentina in the south (several species of Acromyrmex). Species that use fungi in nest construction are known from Europe and Africa (a few species in the genera Crematogaster, Lasius).


The details of fungal cultivation are rich and complex. First, a wide variety of materials are used as substrate for fungus cultivating. The so-called lower genera include species that prefer dead vegetation, seeds, flowers, fruits, insect corpses, and feces, which are collected in the vicinity of their nests. The higher genera include non leaf-cutting species that collect mostly fallen leaflets, fruit, and flowers, as well as the leafcutters that collect fresh leaves from shrubs and trees. Second, while the majority of fungi that are farmed by fungus-feeding ants belong to the family Lepiotaceae, mostly the genera Leucoagaricus and Leucocoprinus, other fungi are also involved. Some species utilise fungi in the family Tricholomataceae while a few others cultivate yeast. The fungi used by the higher genera no longer produce spores. Their fungi produce nutritious and swollen hyphal tips (gongylidia) that grow in bundles called staphylae, to specifically feed the ants. Finally, colony size varies tremendously among these ants. Lower taxa mostly live in inconspicuous nests with 100–1000 individuals and relatively small fungus gardens. Higher taxa, in contrast, live in colonies made of 5–10 million ants that live and work within hundreds of interconnected fungus-bearing chambers in huge subterranean nests. Some colonies are so large, they can be seen from satellite photos, measuring up to 600 m3.

Based on these habits, and taking phylogenetic information into consideration, these ants can be divided into six biologically distinct agricultural systems (with a list of genera involved in each category):

Nest Construction

A limited number of species that use fungi in the construction of their nests.

Lower Agriculture

Practiced by species in the majority of fungus-feeding genera, including those thought to retain more primitive features, which cultivate a wide range of fungal species in the tribe Leucocoprineae.

Coral Fungus Agriculture

Practiced by species in the Apterostigma pilosum species-group, which cultivate fungi within the Pterulaceae.

Yeast Agriculture

Practiced by species within the Cyphomyrmex rimosus species-group, which cultivate a distinct clade of leucocoprineaceous fungi derived from the lower attine fungi.

Generalized Higher Agriculture

Practiced by species in several genera of non-leaf-cutting "higher attine" ants, which cultivate a distinct clade of leucocoprineaceous fungi separately derived from the lower attine fungi.

Leaf-Cutter Agriculture

A subdivision of higher attine agriculture practiced by species within several ecologically dominant genera, which cultivate a single highly derived species of higher attine fungus.

Note that the farming habits of Mycetagroicus (4 species) are unknown. Also, while species of Pseudoatta (2 species) are closely related to the fungus-feeding genus Acromyrmex, they are social parasites, living in the nests of their hosts and are not actively involved in fungus growing. ‎

This ant is one of the most well studied tropical ant species.

Foraging

Bustamante and Amarillo-Suarez (2019) examined how temperature influenced foraging behavior. Nests and nest fragments were brought into the laboratory from field colonies located in forest and pasture sites (Cauca River Valley, Columbia). They found a significant difference in the number foragers at leaves placed in temperature-controlled foraging arenas across a range of temperatures. There were an increasing number of foragers from 15-35C, then a sharp and dramatic drop off at 40 and 45 C. There was no difference in the responses of foragers by habitat, i.e., the pasture and forest colonies.

Reproduction

Dijkstra and Boomsma (2006) investigated the viability of worker produced eggs in Atta cephalotes, Atta sexdens and Atta colombica. Most Atta workers have rudimentary, non-functional ovaries in a queenright colony but a few, typically tending the queen, can produce trophic eggs (Dijkstra et al., 2005). These eggs are feed to the queen. It was not known if any worker eggs can produce males. No Atta cephalotes eggs developed into males. They found Atta workers are not completely infertile, as a few males were found in other species' colonies, but worker fertility is very low. They hypothesize that worker reproduction in orphaned Atta field colonies is almost never successful because the last workers die before their sons can be raised to adulthood, but the importance of worker-laid trophic eggs for queen feeding has precluded the evolutionary loss of worker ovaries.

Interactions with other organisms

Many organisms use chemicals to deter enemies. Some spiders can modify the composition of their silk to deter predators from climbing onto their webs. The Malaysian golden orb-weaver Nephila antipodiana (Walckenaer) produces silk containing an alkaloid (2-pyrrolidinone) that functions as a defense against ant invasion. Ants avoid silk containing this chemical. In the present study, we test the generality of ants' silk avoidance behavior in the field. We introduced three ant species to the orb webs of Nephila clavipes (Linnaeus) in the tropical rainforest of La Selva, Costa Rica. We found that predatory army ants (Eciton burchellii) as well as non-predatory leaf-cutting ants (Atta cephalotes and Acromyrmex volcanus) avoided adult N. clavipes silk, suggesting that an additional species within genus Nephila may possess ant-deterring silk. Our field assay also suggests that silk avoidance behavior is found in multiple ant species.

Association with Other Organisms

Explore-icon.png Explore: Show all Associate data or Search these data. See also a list of all data tables or learn how data is managed.

Diptera

  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Apocephalus asymmetricus (a parasite) (phorid.net) (attacked).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Apocephalus ritualis (a parasite) (phorid.net) (attacked).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Apocephalus spinosus (a parasite) (phorid.net) (attacked).
  • This species is a host for the milichiid fly Milichiella argenteocincta (a myrmecophile) in Argentina, Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Dominica, Guyana, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Alabama, Florida (Brake, 2009; Milichiidae online).
  • This species is a host for the milichiid fly Pholeomyia comans (a myrmecophile) (Moser & Neff, 1971; Milichiidae online).
  • This species is a host for the milichiid fly Pholeomyia texensis (a myrmecophile) in Texas (Waller, 1980;

Milichiidae online).

  • This species is a associate (details unknown) for the phorid fly Synclinusa spp. (a associate (details unknown)) (Quevillon, 2018).
  • This species is a associate (details unknown) for the phorid fly Synclinusa spp. (a associate (details unknown)) (Quevillon, 2018).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Allochaeta wallerae (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Apocephalus attophilus (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Apocephalus sp. (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Eibesfeldtphora attae (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Eibesfeldtphora pala (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Eibesfeldtphora prolixa (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Neodohrniphora curvinervis (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Neodohrniphora sp. 1 (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the phorid fly Neodohrniphora sp. 2 (a parasitoid) (Quevillon, 2018) (encounter mode primary; direct transmission; transmission outside nest).

Fungi

  • This species is a host for the fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis (a pathogen) in Asia, North and South America (Shrestha et al., 2017).

Nematodes

  • This species is a host for the nematode Panagrolaimus sp. (a parasite) (Quevillon, 2018) (multiple encounter modes; indirect transmission; transmission outside nest).
  • This species is a host for the nematode Pristonchus sp. (a parasite) (Quevillon, 2018) (multiple encounter modes; indirect transmission; transmission outside nest).

Genetics

Atta cephalotes has had its entire genome sequenced.

Palomeque et al. (2015) found class II mariner elements, a form of transposable elements, in the genome of this ant.

Life History Traits

  • Mean colony size: 500,000 (Jaffe & Howse, 1979; Beckers et al., 1989)
  • Foraging behaviour: mass recruiter (Jaffe & Howse, 1979; Beckers et al., 1989)

Castes

Images from AntWeb

Atta cephalotes casent0173618 head 1.jpgAtta cephalotes casent0173618 profile 1.jpgAtta cephalotes casent0173618 dorsal 1.jpgAtta cephalotes casent0173618 label 1.jpg
Worker (major/soldier). Specimen code casent0173618. Photographer April Nobile, uploaded by California Academy of Sciences. Owned by CAS, San Francisco, CA, USA.

Phylogeny

Atta

Atta mexicana

Atta insularis

Atta texana

Atta cephalotes

Atta colombica

Atta robusta

Atta sexdens

Atta saltensis

Atta vollenweideri

Atta bisphaerica

Atta goiana

Atta laevigata

Atta capiguara

Atta opaciceps

Based on Barrera, C.A. et al., 2021. Note that only selected species are included.

Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

  • cephalotes. Formica cephalotes Linnaeus, 1758: 581 (w.) (no state data, “Habitat in America meridionali”).
    • Olivier, 1792: 500 (q.m.); Wheeler, G.C. 1949: 677 (l.).
    • Combination in Myrmica: Latreille, 1804 179;
    • combination in Oecodoma: Latreille, 1818b: 224; Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835: 176; Smith, F. 1858b: 180;
    • combination in Atta: Fabricius, 1804: 421; Latreille, 1809: 129; Leach, 1815: 147; Roger, 1863b: 35.
    • Status as species: Linnaeus, 1767: 964; De Geer, 1773: 604; Fabricius, 1775: 395; Fabricius, 1782: 493; Retzius, 1783: 76; Fabricius, 1787: 310; Gmelin, 1790: 2802; Christ, 1791: 516; Olivier, 1792: 499; Fabricius, 1793: 362; Latreille, 1802c: 222; Fabricius, 1804: 421; Gravenhorst, 1807: 287; Jurine, 1807: 274 (in text); Latreille, 1809: 129; Leach, 1815: 147; Lamarck, 1817: 97; Latreille, 1818b: 224; Lund, 1831a: 118; Pohl & Kollar, 1832: 14; Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835: 176; Guérin-Méneville, 1844a: 422; Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Roger, 1863b: 35; Mayr, 1863: 437; Mayr, 1865: 81 (redescription); Mayr, 1884: 37; Emery, 1892b: 162; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Emery, 1894k: 57; Forel, 1895b: 138; Forel, 1899c: 32; Forel, 1905b: 157; Wheeler, W.M. 1905b: 130; Wheeler, W.M. 1907a: 274; Forel, 1908b: 40; Forel, 1909a: 249; Forel, 1912e: 179; Emery, 1913b: 259; Mann, 1916: 453; Wheeler, W.M. 1916c: 11; Wheeler, W.M. 1916d: 326; Crawley, 1916b: 372; Forel, 1921b: 134; Mann, 1922: 51; Wheeler, W.M. 1922c: 14; Wheeler, W.M. 1923a: 4; Emery, 1924d: 353; Wheeler, W.M. 1925a: 36; Borgmeier, 1927c: 136; Santschi, 1929f: 92 (in key); Borgmeier, 1934: 108; Menozzi, 1935b: 197; Weber, 1938b: 205; Santschi, 1939f: 166; Borgmeier, 1939: 422 (in list); Weber, 1941b: 127; Gonçalves, 1942: 344; Weber, 1945: 72; Weber, 1946b: 156; Gonçalves, 1947a: 185; Borgmeier, 1950d: 254; Weber, 1958a: 9; Borgmeier, 1959b: 339 (redescription); Kempf, 1961b: 520; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Cherrett & Cherrett, 1989: 52; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Branstetter & Sáenz, 2012: 257; Bezděčková, et al. 2015: 115; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99 (redescription); Fernández & Serna, 2019: 841.
    • Senior synonym of fervens: Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Mayr, 1863: 437; Roger, 1863b: 35; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of grossa: Latreille, 1802c: 224; Fabricius, 1804: 421; Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835: 176; Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Mayr, 1863: 437; Roger, 1863b: 35; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of integrior: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of isthmicola: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of migratoria: Retzius, 1783: 76; Fabricius, 1793: 362; Fabricius, 1804: 421; Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835: 176; Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Mayr, 1863: 437; Roger, 1863b: 35; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of oaxaquensis: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of opaca: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of polita: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Senior synonym of visitatrix: Emery, 1892b: 162; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 75; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
    • Curent subspecies: nominal plus lutea.
  • fervens. Formica fervens Drury, 1782: 58, pl. 42, fig. 3 (q.) MEXICO (“Mosquito Shore, Bay of Mexico”).
    • [Note: Drury, 1782: 58, does not give the name of the species at the description, but it is entered in his index as, “pl. xlii, fig. 3. Fervens. Class Hym. Genus. Form.”]
    • Combination in Atta: Say, 1836: 290.
    • Status as species: Say, 1836: 290; Roger, 1863b: 35; Mayr, 1865: 81; Forel, 1885a: 362; Mayr, 1886d: 442; Cresson, 1887: 259; Emery, 1895c: 324; Forel, 1899c: 33; Forel, 1901c: 124; Crawley, 1916b: 377; Borgmeier, 1939: 427.
    • [Note: Roger, 1863b: 35, Mayr, 1865: 81, Forel, 1885a: 362; Mayr, 1886d: 442, Cresson, 1887: 259, Dalla Torre, 1893: 152, Emery, 1895c: 329, Forel, 1899c: 33, Forel, 1901c: 124, Forel, 1907e: 2, Crawley, 1916b: 377, and Borgmeier, 1939: 427, all record Atta fervens Say. This is correctly fervens Drury, 1782, sensu Say, 1836.]
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Mayr, 1863: 437; Roger, 1863b: 35; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 76; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • grossa. Formica grossa Fabricius, 1787: 309 (q.) FRENCH GUIANA.
    • Combination in Atta: Roger, 1863b: 35.
    • Status as species: Gmelin, 1790: 2801; Olivier, 1792: 497; Fabricius, 1793: 359.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Latreille, 1802c: 224; Fabricius, 1804: 421; Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835: 176; Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Mayr, 1863: 437; Roger, 1863b: 35; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 76; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • integrior. Atta cephalotes var. integrior Forel, 1904c: 31 (w.) BRAZIL (Pará).
    • As unavailable (infrasubspecific) name: Emery, 1913b: 259.
    • Subspecies of cephalotes: Emery, 1924d: 353; Borgmeier, 1927c: 136; Santschi, 1929f: 92 (in key); Borgmeier, 1939: 422 (in list); Gonçalves, 1942: 346; Borgmeier, 1950d: 258.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 76; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • isthmicola. Atta cephalotes subsp. isthmicola Weber, 1941b: 127 (w.q.) PANAMA (Barro Colorado I.).
    • Subspecies of cephalotes: Gonçalves, 1942: 345; Borgmeier, 1950d: 243; Weber, 1958a: 9.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 76; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • migratoria. Formica migratoria De Geer, 1773: 604, pl. 31, figs. 11-13 (w.) SURINAME.
    • [Misspelled as migrator by Dalla Torre, 1893: 151, Forel, 1899c: 32.]
    • Combination in Atta: Roger, 1863b: 35.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Retzius, 1783: 76; Fabricius, 1793: 362; Fabricius, 1804: 421; Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, 1835: 176; Smith, F. 1858b: 180; Mayr, 1863: 437; Roger, 1863b: 35; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • oaxaquensis. Atta (Atta) cephalotes subsp. oaxaquensis Gonçalves, 1942: 344 (w.) MEXICO (Veracruz, Oaxaca).
    • Subspecies of cephalotes: Borgmeier, 1950d: 243.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • opaca. Atta cephalotes var. opaca Forel, 1904c: 31 (w.) COLOMBIA.
    • As unavailable (infrasubspecific) name: Emery, 1913b: 259.
    • Subspecies of cephalotes: Forel, 1911e: 257; Forel, 1914e: 10; Emery, 1924d: 353; Santschi, 1929f: 92 (in key); Weber, 1938b: 205; Wheeler, W.M. 1938: 252; Borgmeier, 1939: 422 (in list); Gonçalves, 1942: 345; Borgmeier, 1950d: 258; Weber, 1958a: 10.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • polita. Atta cephalotes subsp. polita Emery, 1905c: 54 (w.) BOLIVIA.
    • Subspecies of cephalotes: Forel, 1911e: 257; Forel, 1912e: 179; Emery, 1913b: 259; Emery, 1924d: 353; Gonçalves, 1942: 345; Weber, 1958a: 11.
    • Status as species: Weber, 1938b: 205; Borgmeier, 1939: 423 (in list).
    • Subspecies of vollenweideri: Borgmeier, 1950d: 243.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Borgmeier, 1959b: 340; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.
  • visitatrix. Formica visitatrix Christ, 1791: 517 (w.) SURINAME.
    • Junior synonym of cephalotes: Emery, 1892b: 162; Dalla Torre, 1893: 151; Forel, 1899c: 32; Emery, 1924d: 353; Kempf, 1972a: 26; Bolton, 1995b: 77; Fernández, et al. 2015: 99.

Description

References

References based on Global Ant Biodiversity Informatics

  • Aldana delq Torre R. C., and P. Chacon de Ulloa. 1999. Megadiversidad de hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) de la cuenca media del rio Calima. Revista Colombiana de Entomologia 25(1-2): 37-47.
  • Alvarez, G., I. Armbrecht, E. Jimenez, H. Armbrecht and P. Ulloa-Chacon. 2001. Ant-plant association in two Tococa species from a primary rain forest of Colombia Choco (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Sociobiology 38(3B):585-602
  • Armbrecht I., E. Jimenez, G. Alvarez, P. Ulloa-Chacon, and H. Armbrecht. 2001. An ant mosaic in the Colombian rain forest of Choco (Hymenoptera: formicidae0. Sociobiology 37(3B): 491-509.
  • Ascuntar-Osnas, I. Armbrecht, and A. M. Torres. 2018. Remocion de semillas por hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) en un gradiente borde- Interior de un bosque seco. Boletin del Museo Entomologia de la Universidad del Valle 18(1): 1-11.
  • Basset Y., L. Cizek, P. Cuenoud, R. K. Didham, F. Guilhaumon, O. Missa, V. Novotny, F. Odegaards, T. Roslin, J. Schmidl et al. 2012. Arthropod diversity in a tropical forest. Science 338(6113): 1481-1484.
  • Bezdeckova K., P. Bedecka, and I. Machar. 2015. A checklist of the ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of Peru. Zootaxa 4020 (1): 101–133.
  • Boer P. 2019. Ants of Curacao, species list. Accessed on January 22 2019 at http://www.nlmieren.nl/websitepages/SPECIES%20LIST%20CURACAO.html
  • Borgmeier T. 1939. Nova contribuição para o conhecimento das formigas neotropicas (Hym. Formicidae). Revista de Entomologia (Rio de Janeiro) 10: 403-428.
  • Borgmeier T. 1950. Atta-Studien (Hym. Formicidae). Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro 48: 265-292.
  • Borgmeier T. 1950. Estudos sôbre Atta (Hym. Formicidae). Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro 48: 239-263.
  • Burd, M. and N. Aranwela. 2003. Head-on encounter rates and walking speed of foragers in leaf-cutting ant traffic. Insectes Sociaux 50:3-8
  • Burd, M., D. Archer, N. Aranwela and D.J. Stradling. 2002. Traffic Dynamics of the Leaf-Cutting Ant, Atta cephalotes. The American Naturalist 159(3):283-293
  • Castano-Meneses, G., M. Vasquez-Bolanos, J. L. Navarrete-Heredia, G. A. Quiroz-Rocha, and I. Alcala-Martinez. 2015. Avances de Formicidae de Mexico. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.
  • Chacon de Ulloa P., A. M. Osorio-Garica, R. Achury, and C. Bermudez-Rivas. 2012. Hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) del Bosque seco tropical (Bs-T) de la cuenca alta del rio Cauca, Colombia. Biota Colombiana 13(2): 165-181.
  • Crawley W. C. 1916. Ants from British Guiana. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 8(17): 366-378.
  • Dattilo W. et al. 2019. MEXICO ANTS: incidence and abundance along the Nearctic-Neotropical interface. Ecology https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.2944
  • Del Toro, I., M. Vázquez, W.P. Mackay, P. Rojas and R. Zapata-Mata. Hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) de Tabasco: explorando la diversidad de la mirmecofauna en las selvas tropicales de baja altitud. Dugesiana 16(1):1-14.
  • Delabie J. H. C., R. Céréghino, S. Groc, A. Dejean, M. Gibernau, B. Corbara, and A. Dejean. 2009. Ants as biological indicators of Wayana Amerindian land use in French Guiana. Comptes Rendus Biologies 332(7): 673-684.
  • Doherty, K.R., E.W. Zweifel, N.C. Elde, M.J. McKone and S.G. Zweifel. 2003. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Markers Reveal Genetic Variation in the Symbiotic Fungus of Leaf-Cutting Ants. Mycologia 95(1):19-23
  • Emery C. 1894. Estudios sobre las hormigas de Costa Rica. Anales del Museo Nacional de Costa Rica 1888-1889: 45-64.
  • Emery C. 1896. Formiche raccolte dal dott. E. Festa nei pressi del golfo di Darien. Bollettino dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia Comparata della Reale Università di Torino 11(229): 1-4.
  • Escalante Gutiérrez J. A. 1993. Especies de hormigas conocidas del Perú (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Revista Peruana de Entomología 34:1-13.
  • Escalante J. A. 1976. Hormigas del valle de K'Osnipata (Paucartambo, Cusco). Revista Peruana de Entomologia 107-108.
  • Estrada, A. and R. Coates-Estrada. 1986. Use of leaf resources by howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) and leaf-cutting ants (Atta cephalotes) in the tropical rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. American Journal of Primatology 10:51-66.
  • Fernandes I., and J. de Souza. 2018. Dataset of long-term monitoring of ground-dwelling ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in the influence areas of a hydroelectric power plant on the Madeira River in the Amazon Basin. Biodiversity Data Journal 6: e24375.
  • Fernandes, P.R. XXXX. Los hormigas del suelo en Mexico: Diversidad, distribucion e importancia (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).
  • Fernández F., V. Castro-Huertas, and F. Serna. 2015. Hormigas cortadoras de hojas de Colombia: Acromyrmex & Atta (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Fauna de Colombia, Monografía No.5. Bogotá D.C., Colombia: Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 350 pp.
  • Fernández, F. and S. Sendoya. 2004. Lista de las hormigas neotropicales. Biota Colombiana Volume 5, Number 1.
  • Field Museum Collection, Chicago, Illinois (C. Moreau)
  • Forel A. 1905. Miscellanea myrmécologiques II (1905). Ann. Soc. Entomol. Belg. 49: 155-185.
  • Forel A. 1908. Fourmis de Costa-Rica récoltées par M. Paul Biolley. Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles 44: 35-72.
  • Forel A. 1911. Die Ameisen des K. Zoologischen Museums in München. Sitzungsber. Math.-Phys. Kl. K. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. Münch. 11: 249-303.
  • Forel A. 1921. Quelques fourmis des environs de Quito (Ecuador) récoltées par Mlle Eléonore Naumann. Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles 54: 131-135.
  • Franco W., N. Ladino, J. H. C. Delabie, A. Dejean, J. Orivel, M. Fichaux, S. Groc, M. Leponce, and R. M. Feitosa. 2019. First checklist of the ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of French Guiana. Zootaxa 4674(5): 509-543.
  • Gibernau M., J. Orivel, J. H. C. Delabie, D. Barabe, and A. Dejean. 2007. An asymmetrical relationship between an arboreal ponerine ant and a trash-basket epiphyte (Araceae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 91: 341-346.
  • Gomez V. E. S., and G. Z. González. 2007. Catalogo de Las Hormigas Presentes en El Museo de Historia Natural de la Universidad del Cauca. Popayán : 1-58.
  • Gonçalves C. R. 1942. Contribuiça~o para o conhecimento do gênero Atta Fabr., das formigas saúvas. Bol. Soc. Bras. Agron. 5: 333-358.
  • Gove, A. D., J. D. Majer, and V. Rico-Gray. 2009. Ant assemblages in isolated trees are more sensitive to species loss and replacement than their woodland counterparts. Basic and Applied Ecology 10: 187-195.
  • Groc S., J. H. C. Delabie, F. Fernandez, M. Leponce, J. Orivel, R. Silvestre, Heraldo L. Vasconcelos, and A. Dejean. 2013. Leaf-litter ant communities (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in a pristine Guianese rainforest: stable functional structure versus high species turnover. Myrmecological News 19: 43-51.
  • Houadria M., A. Salas-Lopez, J. Orivel, N. Bluthgen, and F. Menzel. 2015. Dietary and temporal niche differentiati on in tropical ants—can they explain local ant coexistence? Biotropica 47(2): 208-217.
  • INBio Collection (via Gbif)
  • IZIKO South Africa Museum Collection
  • Jaffe K., and E. Vilela. 1989. On nest densities of the leaf-cutting ant Atta cephalotes in tropical primary forest. Biotropica 21(3): 234-236.
  • Johnson R. Personnal Database. Accessed on February 5th 2014 at http://www.asu.edu/clas/sirgtools/resources.htm
  • Kempf W. W. 1961. A survey of the ants of the soil fauna in Surinam (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Studia Entomologica 4: 481-524.
  • Kempf, W.W. 1972. Catalago abreviado das formigas da regiao Neotropical (Hym. Formicidae) Studia Entomologica 15(1-4).
  • Kooij P. W., B. M. Dentinger, D. A. Donoso, J. Z. Shik, and E. Gaya. 2018. Cryptic diversity in Colombian edible leaf-cutting ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Insects 9: 191.
  • Kusnezov N. 1953. La fauna mirmecológica de Bolivia. Folia Universitaria. Cochabamba 6: 211-229.
  • Longino J. T. 2013. Ants of Honduras. Consulted on 18 Jan 2013. https://sites.google.com/site/longinollama/reports/ants-of-honduras
  • Longino J. T. 2013. Ants of Nicargua. Consulted on 18 Jan 2013. https://sites.google.com/site/longinollama/reports/ants-of-nicaragua
  • Longino J. T. L., and M. G. Branstetter. 2018. The truncated bell: an enigmatic but pervasive elevational diversity pattern in Middle American ants. Ecography 41: 1-12.
  • Longino J. T., J. Coddington, and R. K. Colwell. 2002. The ant fauna of a tropical rain forest: estimating species richness three different ways. Ecology 83: 689-702.
  • Longino J. T., and R. K. Colwell. 2011. Density compensation, species composition, and richness of ants on a neotropical elevational gradient. Ecosphere 2(3): 16pp.
  • Longino J. et al. ADMAC project. Accessed on March 24th 2017 at https://sites.google.com/site/admacsite/
  • Longino, J.T. 2010. Personal Communication. Longino Collection Database
  • Maes, J.-M. and W.P. MacKay. 1993. Catalogo de las hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) de Nicaragua. Revista Nicaraguense de Entomologia 23.
  • Mann W. M. 1922. Ants from Honduras and Guatemala. Proceedings of the United States National Museum 61: 1-54.
  • Menozzi C. 1935. Spedizione del Prof. Nello Beccari nella Guiana Britannica. Hymenoptera-Formicidae. Redia. 21: 189-203.
  • Meyer, S.T., I.R. Leal and R. Wirth. 2009. Persisting Hyper-abundance of Leaf-cutting Ants (Atta spp.) at the Edge of an Old Atlantic Forest Fragment. Biotropica 41(6):711-716
  • Miranda P. N., F. B. Baccaro, E. F. Morato, M. A. Oliveira. J. H. C. Delabie. 2017. Limited effects of low-intensity forest management on ant assemblages in southwestern Amazonian forests. Biodivers. Conserv. DOI 10.1007/s10531-017-1368-y
  • Mirmecofauna de la reserva ecologica de San Felipe Bacalar
  • Navarro, E.V. Vergara, H. Echavarria Sanchez, F.J. Serna Cardona. 2007. Hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) asociadas al arboretum de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Medellin. Boletín Sociedad Entomológica Aragonesa 40:497-505.
  • Pacheco, R., R.R. Silva, M.S. de C. Morini, C.R.F. Brandao. 2009. A Comparison of the Leaf-Litter Ant Fauna in a Secondary Atlantic Forest with an Adjacent Pine Plantation in Southeastern Brazil. Neotropical Entomology 38(1):055-065
  • Padilla R. C., and E. E. Miyazawa. 1972. Distribucion geografica de las especies de hormigas arrieras existentes en la Republica Mexicana. Fitofilo 67: 35-36.
  • Pescador A. 1980. Las hormigas arrieras. Naturaleza 11: 278-290.
  • Philpott, S.M., P. Bichier, R. Rice, and R. Greenberg. 2007. Field testing ecological and economic benefits of coffee certification programs. Conservation Biology 21: 975-985.
  • Pires de Prado L., R. M. Feitosa, S. Pinzon Triana, J. A. Munoz Gutierrez, G. X. Rousseau, R. Alves Silva, G. M. Siqueira, C. L. Caldas dos Santos, F. Veras Silva, T. Sanches Ranzani da Silva, A. Casadei-Ferreira, R. Rosa da Silva, and J. Andrade-Silva. 2019. An overview of the ant fauna (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of the state of Maranhao, Brazil. Pap. Avulsos Zool. 59: e20195938.
  • Radoszkowsky O. 1884. Fourmis de Cayenne Française. Trudy Russkago Entomologicheskago Obshchestva 18: 30-39.
  • Salinas P. J. 2010. Catalogue of the ants of the Táchira State, Venezuela, with notes on their biodiversity, biogeography and ecology (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Amblyioponinae, Ponerinae, Proceratiinae, Myrmicinae, Ecitoninae, Formicinae, Pseudomyrmecinae, Dolichoderinae). Boletín de la SEA 47: 315-328.
  • Sandoval V. E., and G. Zambrano. 2007. Catálogo de las hormigas presentes en el Museo de Historia Natural de la Universidad del Cauca. Taller Editorial de la Universidad del Cauca, Popayán. 60 pp.
  • Smith M. R. 1963. Notes on the leaf-cutting ants, Atta spp., of the United States and Mexico (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 65: 299-302.
  • Solomon S. E., C. Rabeling, J. Sosa-Calvo, C. Lopes, A. Rodrigues, H. L. Vasconcelos, M. Bacci, U. G. Mueller, and T. R. Schultz. 2019. The molecular phylogenetics of Trachymyrmex Forel ants and their fungal cultivars provide insights into the origin and coevolutionary history of ‘higher-attine’ ant agriculture. Systematic Entomology 44: 939–956.
  • Solomon, S.E. and A.S. Mikheyev. 2005. The ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) fauna of Cocos Island, Costa Rica. Florida Entomologist 88(4):415-423
  • Swartz, M.B. 1998. Predation on an Atta cephalotes Colony by an Army Ant Nomamyrmex esenbecki. Biotropica 30:682-684
  • Taerum, S.J., M.J. Cafaro, A.E.F. Little, T.R. Schultz, C.R. Currie. 2007. Low Host-Pathogen Specificity in the Leaf-Cutting Ant-Microbe Symbiosis. Proceedings: Biological Sciences 274(1621):1971-197
  • Ulloa Chacon P., M. L. Baena, J. Bustos, R. C. Aldana, J. A. Aldana, and M. A. Gamboa. 1996. Fauna de hormigas del departamento del Valle del Cauca (Colombia). Pp. 413-451. In Andrade-C M. G., G. Amat Garcia, and F. Fernandez. Insectoss de Colombia, estudios escogidos.
  • Urbas, P. M.V. Araujo Jr., I.R. Leal and R. Wirth. 2007. Cutting More from Cut Forests: Edge Effects on Foraging and Herbivory of Leaf-Cutting Ants in Brazil. Biotropica 39(4):489-295
  • Valenzuela-González J., Quiroz-Robledo L. y Martínez-Tlapa D. 2008. Capítulo 8. Hormigas (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae). En: Manson R., Hernández-Ortiz V., Gallina S y K. Mehltreter (eds) Agroecosistemas cafetaleros de Veracruz: biodiversidad, manejo y conservación.Instituto de Ecología A.C.-Instituto Nacional de Ecología (INE-SEMARNAT). P.107-121. ISBN 970-709-112-6.
  • Vásquez-Bolaños M. 2011. Lista de especies de hormigas (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) para México. Dugesiana 18: 95-133
  • Weber N. A. 1938. The biology of the fungus-growing ants. Part IV. Additional new forms. Part V. The Attini of Bolivia. Rev. Entomol. (Rio J.) 9: 154-206.
  • Weber N. A. 1941. The biology of the fungus-growing ants. Part VII. The Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, species. Rev. Entomol. (Rio J.) 12: 93-130.
  • Weber N. A. 1945. The biology of the fungus-growing ants. Part VIII. The Trinidad, B. W. I., species. Revista de Entomologia (Rio de Janeiro) 16: 1-88.
  • Weber N. A. 1946. The biology of the fungus-growing ants. Part IX. The British Guiana species. Revista de Entomologia (Rio de Janeiro) 17: 114-172.
  • Weber N. A. 1947. Lower Orinoco River fungus-growing ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae, Attini). Boletín de Entomologia Venezolana 6: 143-161.
  • Weber N. A. 1958. Nomenclatural notes on Proatta and Atta (Hym.: Formicidae). Entomological News 69: 7-13.
  • Weber N. A. 1968. The Panamanian Atta species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 70: 348-350.
  • Weber N. A. 1969. Ecological relations of three Atta species in Panama. Ecology 50: 141-147.
  • Weber, Neal A. 1968. Tobago Island Fungus-growing Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Entomological News. 79:141-145.
  • Weber, Neal A. 1968. Tobago Island Fungus-growing Ants. Entomological News. 79(6): 141-145.
  • Weber, Neil A. 1968. Tobago Island Fungus-growing Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Entomological News. 79(6):141-145.
  • Wetterer J. K. 1993. Foraging and nesting ecology of a Costa Rican leaf-cutting ant, Acromyrmex volcanus. Psyche (Camb.) 100: 65-76.
  • Wheeler W. M. 1905. The ants of the Bahamas, with a list of the known West Indian species. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 21: 79-135.
  • Wheeler W. M. 1907. A collection of ants from British Honduras. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 23: 271-277.
  • Wheeler W. M. 1921. The Tachigalia ants. Zoologica (New York) 3: 137-168.
  • Wheeler W. M. 1922. The ants of Trinidad. American Museum Novitates 45: 1-16.
  • Wheeler W. M. 1942. Studies of Neotropical ant-plants and their ants. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 90: 1-262.
  • Wheeler, William Morton. 1916. Ants Collected in Trinidad by Professor Roland Thaxter, Mr. F. W. Urich, and Others. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparitive Zoology at Harvard University. 40(8):322-330
  • Wilson, E.O. 1987. The Arboreal Ant Fauna of Peruvian Amazon Forests: A First Assessment. Biotropica 19(3):245-251.
  • Wirth, R., S.T. Meyer, W.R. Almeida, M.V. Araujo Jr., V.S. Barbosa and I.R. Leal. 2007. Increasing densities of leaf-cutting ants (Atta spp.) with proximity to the edge in a Brazilian Atlantic forest. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23:501-505
  • de Abreu J. M., and J. H. C. Delabie. 1986. Controle das formigas cortadeiras em plantios de cacau. Revista Theobroma 16(4): 199-211.
  • do Nascimento, I.C. 2006. Fenologia dos Voos de Acasalamento em Formigas Tropicais