Dorylus fulvus

Dorylus fulvus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Hymenoptera
Family:	Formicidae
Subfamily:	Dorylinae
Genus:	Dorylus
Species:	D. fulvus
Binomial name
Dorylus fulvus (Westwood, 1839) Specimen Labels
Subspecies
Dorylus fulvus badius Gerstäcker, 1859 Dorylus fulvus crosi Santschi, 1926 Dorylus fulvus dentifrons Wasmann, 1904 Dorylus fulvus eurous Emery, 1915 Dorylus fulvus glabratus Shuckard, 1840 Dorylus fulvus juvenculus Shuckard, 1840 Dorylus fulvus mordax Santschi, 1931 Dorylus fulvus obscurior Wheeler, W.M., 1925 Dorylus fulvus punicus Santschi, 1926 Dorylus fulvus ruficeps Santschi, 1926 Dorylus fulvus saharensis Santschi, 1926
Synonyms
Cosmaecetes homalinus Spinola, 1851 Labidus kirbii Shuckard, 1840 Labidus spinolae Shuckard, 1840 Labidus thwaitsii Shuckard, 1840 Typhlopone clausii Joseph, 1882 Typhlopone dahlbomii Westwood, 1840 Typhlopone shuckardi Westwood, 1840

Evolutionary Relationships

Dorylus Dorylus laevigatus Dorylus conradti Dorylus orientalis Dorylus fimbriatus laevipodex Dorylus fulvus Dorylus spininodis Dorylus mayri Dorylus nigricans rubellus Dorylus nigricans molestus Dorylus nigricans terrificus Dorylus wilverthi Dorylus nigricans burmeisteri Dorylus nigricans sjostedti Dorylus nigricans arcens Dorylus nigricans Dorylus emeryi Dorylus gerstaeckeri Dorylus gribodoi Dorylus kohli Dorylus emeryi opacus Dorylus braunsi Dorylus affinis Dorylus helvolus

Based on Kronauer et al., 2007. Note only selected Dorylus species are included, and undescribed species are excluded.

Arnold (1915) observed these ants tending an unidentified Membracidae, one of just a few rare records of an army ant associating with honeydew producing insects.

Photo Gallery

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  Dorylus fulvus worker, Israel. Photo by Eran Schnecke.

Distribution

Latitudinal Distribution Pattern

Latitudinal Range: 36.833333° to -27.6°.

North Temperate	North Subtropical	Tropical	South Subtropical	South Temperate

• Source: AntMaps

Distribution based on Regional Taxon Lists

Afrotropical Region: Central African Republic, Gambia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, United Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe.
Oriental Region: India, Pakistan.
Palaearctic Region: Algeria, Balearic Islands, Oman, Turkey.

Distribution based on AntMaps

Distribution based on AntWeb specimens

Check data from AntWeb

Castes

Worker

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Male

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Nomenclature

The following information is derived from Barry Bolton's Online Catalogue of the Ants of the World.

• fulvus. Typhlopone fulva Westwood, 1839: 218 (in text), fig. 86.17-20 (w.) (no state data).
  • Type-material: 3 syntype workers.
  • [Note: number of specimens is given by Westwood, 1840b: 81.]
  • Type-locality: none given, “found dead in sugar” (C.C. Babington).
  • Type-depository: OXUM.
  • [Misspelled as fulvis by Prins, 1963: 97, in the combination D. fulvis badius.]
  • Emery, 1895j: 723 (m.).
  • Combination in Dorylus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 10;
  • combination in D. (Typhlopone): Emery, 1895j: 723.
  • Status as species: Westwood, 1840b: 87 (redescription); Smith, F. 1858b: 110; Roger, 1861a: 45; Roger, 1863b: 20; Mayr, 1863: 457; Dalla Torre, 1893: 10; Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery 1897e: 595; Emery, 1899a: 499; Emery, 1901c: 196 (in key); Forel, 1904b: 369; Forel, 1904c: 5; Mayr, 1907a: 387; Mayr, 1907b: 8; Emery, 1910b: 13; Forel, 1910a: 6; Stitz, 1910: 128; Forel, 1910f: 4; Karavaiev, 1912a: 2; Forel, 1913d: 427; Santschi, 1914d: 333; Arnold, 1915: 125; Emery, 1915g: 6; Stitz, 1917: 335; Bondroit, 1918: 15; Donisthorpe, 1918b: 166; Emery, 1919c: 102; Crawley, 1920a: 163; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 742; Müller, 1923b: 30; Santschi, 1926e: 235; Kutter, 1928: 66; Crawley, in Santschi, 1928d: 55 (redescription); Santschi, 1931d: 407; Finzi, 1936: 156; Finzi, 1940: 155; Weber, 1952c: 6; Ceballos, 1956: 295; Cagniant, 1964: 86; Cagniant, 1968a: 142; Cagniant, 1970a: 413; Collingwood, 1985: 233; Agosti & Collingwood, 1987a: 52; Agosti & Collingwood, 1987b: 264; Kugler, J. 1988: 256; Bolton, 1995b: 178; Collingwood & Agosti, 1996: 307; Espadaler, 1997b: 27; Cagniant, 2006a: 195; Petrov, 2006: 82 (in key); Kiran & Karaman, 2012: 5; Hita Garcia, et al. 2013: 203; Borowiec, L. 2014: 71 (see note in bibliography); Bharti, Guénard, et al. 2016: 22; Rasheed, et al. 2019: 428.
  • Senior synonym of clausii: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 744; Müller, 1923b: 30; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
  • Senior synonym of dahlbomii: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
  • Senior synonym of homalinus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1911f: 160; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743.
  • Senior synonym of kirbii: Smith, F. 1858b: 110; Mayr, 1863: 457; Roger, 1863b: 20; Dalla Torre, 1893: 10; Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
  • Senior synonym of shuckardi: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
  • Senior synonym of spinolae: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
  • Senior synonym of thwaitsii: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
  • Distribution: Algeria, Cameroon, Egypt, Ethiopia, France, Ghana, Guinea, India, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Kenya, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Slovenia, Somalia, Spain (+ Balearics), Sudan, Syria, Tanzania (+ Zanzibar), Tunisia, Turkey, Yemen.
  • Current subspecies: nominal plus badius, crosi, dentifrons, eurous, glabratus, juvenculus, mordax, obscurior, punicus, ruficeps, saharensis.
• clausii. Typhlopone clausii Joseph, 1882: 47 (w.) SLOVENIA.
  • Type-material: syntype workers (number not stated).
  • Type-locality: Slovenia: Krain (“Krainer Tropfsteingrotten”), caves of S. Kanzian (Mataún), Corgnale, and S. Servolo, iv.1875, and 1881 (G. Joseph).
  • Type-depository: NHMW.
  • Combination in Dorylus: André, 1882c: 252.
  • Status as species: André, 1882c: 252 (in key).
  • Junior synonym of juvenculus: Emery, 1891b: 1.
  • Subspecies of juvenculus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 12.
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 744; Müller, 1923b: 30; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
• dahlbomii. Typhlopone dahlbomii Westwood, 1840b: 88, pl. 2, fig. 3 (w.) (no state data).
  • Type-material: holotype(?) worker.
  • [Note: no indication of number of specimens is given.]
  • Type-locality: none given (“In saccharo detecta”).
  • [Note: Smith, F. 1858b: 111, has “Hab. West India Islands?” which is unlikely.].
  • Type-depository: unknown (“In Mus. D.C.C. Babington”; perhaps OXUM).
  • Combination in Dorylus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 10.
  • Status as species: Smith, F. 1858b: 111; Roger, 1861a: 45; Roger, 1863b: 20; Mayr, 1863: 457; Dalla Torre, 1893: 10.
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 178.
• homalinus. Cosmaecetes homalinus Spinola, 1851b: 55 (w.) Brazil (Pará).
  • Type-material: holotype worker.
  • Type-locality (in error): Brazil: Pará, 1846 (Ghiliani).
  • [Note: Spinola, 1853b: 71, says that he found three workers in M. Rambur’s collection that were exactly the same as the holotype, but from Algeria. Emery, 1893h: 1, confirms that homalinus is from North Africa.]
  • Type-depository: MRSN.
  • [Also described as new by Spinola, 1853: 71.]
  • [Misspelled as omalinus by Emery, 1893h: 1, Wheeler, W.M. 1911f: 160.]
  • Combination in Typhlopone: Smith, F. 1858b: 111;
  • combination in Dorylus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 11.
  • Status as species: Smith, F. 1858b: 111; Roger, 1861a: 45; Roger, 1863b: 20; Mayr, 1863: 457; Dalla Torre, 1893: 11.
  • Junior synonym of juvenculus: Emery, 1893h: 1; Bolton, 1995b: 179 (error).
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1911f: 160; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743.
• kirbii. Labidus (Typhlopone) kirbii Shuckard, 1840b: 265 (w.) (no state data).
  • Type-material: holotype worker.
  • [Note: Shuckard, 1840b: 265, says of the holotype, “I have only the head, which is attached to the thigh of a Formica.”]
  • Type-locality: none given.
  • Type-depository: BMNH? (Shuckard says, “in my own collection”.)
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Smith, F. 1858b: 110; Roger, 1861a: 45; Mayr, 1863: 457; Roger, 1863b: 20; Dalla Torre, 1893: 10; Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 179.
• shuckardi. Typhlopone shuckardi Westwood, 1840b: 88, pl. 2, fig. 2 (w.) (no state data).
  • Type-material: holotype(?) worker.
  • [Note: no indication of number of specimens is given.]
  • Type-locality: none given (“In saccharo detecta”).
  • [Note: Smith, F. 1858b: 111, has “Hab. West India Islands?” which is unlikely.].
  • Type-depository: unknown (“In Mus. nostr. Communic. D. Raddon”; perhaps OXUM).
  • Combination in Dorylus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 13.
  • Status as species: Smith, F. 1858b: 111; Roger, 1861a: 45; Roger, 1863b: 20; Mayr, 1863: 457; Dalla Torre, 1893: 13.
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 180.
• spinolae. Labidus (Typhlopone) spinolae Shuckard, 1840c: 327 (w.) (no state data).
  • Type-material: holotype worker.
  • Type-locality: none given (G.H.K. Thwaites).
  • Type-depository: unknown (“in the collection of Mr Thwaites”.)
  • [Note: Smith, F. 1858b: 111, says that the single specimen was in “sugar casks from South America”. There is no such statement in the original description, but if the comment is correct then spinolae can not be a Dorylus species.]
  • Combination in Labidus: Westwood, 1842: 77;
  • combination in Typhlopone: Smith, F. 1858b: 111;
  • combination in Dorylus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 13.
  • Status as species: Smith, F. 1858b: 111; Roger, 1861a: 45; Roger, 1863b: 20; Mayr, 1863: 457; Dalla Torre, 1893: 13.
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 180.
• thwaitsii. Labidus (Typhlopone) thwaitsii Shuckard, 1840c: 326 (w.) (no state data).
  • Type-material: holotype(?) worker.
  • [Note: no indication of number of specimens is given.]
  • Type-locality: none given (G.H.K. Thwaites).
  • Type-depository: unknown (“in the collection of Mr Thwaites”.)
  • [Note: Smith, F. 1858b: 111, says that the specimen(s) were in, “sugar casks from South America”. There is no such statement in the original description, but if the comment is correct then thwaitsii can not be a Dorylus species.]
  • [Misspelled as twaitsi by Emery, 1910b: 13.]
  • Combination in Typhlopone: Smith, F. 1858b: 111;
  • combination in Dorylus: Dalla Torre, 1893: 13.
  • Status as species: Smith, F. 1858b: 111; Roger, 1861a: 45; Roger, 1863b: 20; Mayr, 1863: 457; Dalla Torre, 1893: 13.
  • Junior synonym of fulvus: Emery, 1895j: 723; Emery, 1910b: 13; Wheeler, W.M. 1922a: 743; Bolton, 1995b: 180.

References

• Arnold G. 1915. A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Part I. Ponerinae, Dorylinae. Annals of the South African Museum. 14: 1 – 159.
• Barth, M.B., Moritz, R.F.A., Pirk, C.W.W., Kraus, F.B. 2013. Male-biased dispersal promotes large scale gene flow in a subterranean army ant, Dorylus (Typhlopone) fulvus. Population Ecology (DOI 10.1007/s10144-013-0383-4).
• Borowiec, M.L. 2019. Convergent evolution of the army ant syndrome and congruence in big-data phylogenetics. Systematic Biology 68, 642–656 (doi:10.1093/sysbio/syy088).
• Dalla Torre, K. W. von. 1893. Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus. Vol. 7. Formicidae (Heterogyna). Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 289 pp. (page 10, Combination in Dorylus)
• Emery, C. 1895l. Die Gattung Dorylus Fab. und die systematische Eintheilung der Formiciden. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Geogr. Biol. Tiere 8: 685-778 (page 723, male described, Combination in D. (Typhlopone), Senior synonym of clausii, dahlbomii, shuckardi, spinolae and thwaitsii)
• Kronauer, D. J. C.; Schöning, C.; Vilhelmsen, L. B.; Boomsma, J. J. 2007. A molecular phylogeny of Dorylus army ants provides evidence for multiple evolutionary transitions in foraging niche. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: Article 56 (doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-56).
• Mayr, G. 1863a. Formicidarum index synonymicus. Verh. K-K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien 13: 385-460 (page 457, Senior synonym of kirbii)
• Smith, F. 1858a. Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum. Part VI. Formicidae. London: British Museum, 216 pp. (page 110, Senior synonym of kirbii)
• Westwood, J. O. 1839a. An introduction to the modern classification of insects; founded on the natural habits and corresponding organisation of the different families. Volume 2. Part XI. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, pp. 193-224. (page 219, fig. 86 worker described)

References based on Global Ant Biodiversity Informatics

• Barech G., M. Khaldi, S. Ziane, A. Zedam, S. Doumadji, M. Sharaf, and X. Espadaler. 2016. A first checklist and diversity of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of the saline dry lake Chott El Hodna in Algeria, a Ramsar Conservation Wetland. African Entomology 24(1): 143–152.
• Begna D. 2007. Assesment of the effect of ant (Dorylus fulvus) on honeybee colony (A. mellifera) and their products in West & South-West Shewa zones, Ethiopia. Eth. J. Anim. Prod. 7(1): 12-26.
• Borowiec L. 2014. Catalogue of ants of Europe, the Mediterranean Basin and adjacent regions (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Genus (Wroclaw) 25(1-2): 1-340.
• Cagniant, H. 1968. Liste preliminaire de fourmis forestieres d'Algerie. Resultats obtenus de 1963 a 1964. Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse 104: 138-147
• Cagniant, H. 2006. Liste actualisée des fourmis du Maroc. Myrmecologische Nachrichten 8: 193-200.
• Cagniant, H.. "Liste actualisee des fourmis du Maroc (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)." Myrmecologische Nachrichten 8 (2006): 193-200.
• Cagniant, H.. "Étude de quelques fourmis marocaines. Statistique provisoire des Formicidae du Maroc." Bulletin de la Société d' Histoire naturelle de l' Afrique du Nord 53 (1964): 83-118.
• Cagniant, H.. Les peuplements de fourmis des forêts algériennes: écologie, biocénotique, essai biologique. Universite de Toulouse, 1973.
• Collingwood, C. A. and D. Agosti. 1996. Formicidae (Insects: Hymenoptera) of Saudi Arabia (Part 2) Fauna of Saudi Arabia 15: 300-385.
• Crawley W. C. 1920. Ants from Mesopotamia and north-west Persia. Entomol. Rec. J. Var. 32: 162-166.
• Dalla Torre, K. W.. Catalogus Hymenopterorum hucusque descriptorum systematicus et synonymicus. Vol. 7. Formicidae. Vol. 7. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1893.
• Delye, G., and J. L. Bonaric. "Fourmis du sud Marocain." Etude de certains milieux du Maroc et de leux evolution recente RCP 249 (1973).
• Derwesh A. I. 1965. A preliminary list of identified insects and some arachnids of Iraq. Ministry of Agriculture. Government Pressm Baghdad Iraq. Bulletin n 112: 128 pages.
• Diame L., B. Taylor, R. Blatrix, J. F. Vayssieres, J. Y. Rey, I. Grechi, and K. Diarra. 2017. A preliminary checklist of the ant (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) fauna of Senegal. Journal of Insect Biodiversity 5(15): 1-16.
• Donisthorpe H. 1918. A list of ants from Mesopotamia; with a description of a new species and a new variety. Entomologist's Record and Journal of Variation 30: 165-167.
• Emery C. 1895. Die Gattung Dorylus Fab. und die systematische Eintheilung der Formiciden. Zoologische Jahrbücher. Abteilung für Systematik, Geographie und Biologie der Tiere 8: 685-778.
• Emery, C.. "Exploration scientifique de la Tunisie. Zoologie. - Hyménoptères. Révision critique des fourmis de la Tunisie." Explor. Scient. De la Tunisie Zoll. Hym. (Folleto) Paris. Imp (1891): iii + 21 pp.
• Field Museum Collection, Chicago, Illinois (C. Moreau)
• Finzi B. 1939. Materiali zoologici dell'Eritrea raccolti da G. Müller durante la spedizione dell'Istituto Sieroterapico Milanese e conservati al Museo di Trieste. Parte III. Hymenoptera: Formicidae. Atti del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Trieste 14: 153-168.
• Fisher B. L. 2004. Diversity patterns of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) along an elevational gradient on Monts Doudou in southwestern Gabon. Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences 28: 269-286.
• Forel A. 1904. Miscellanea myrmécologiques. Rev. Suisse Zool. 12: 1-52.
• Forel A. 1904. Note sur les fourmis du Musée Zoologique de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences à St. Pétersbourg. Ezheg. Zool. Muz. 8: 368-388.
• Forel A. 1909. Études myrmécologiques en 1909. Fourmis de Barbarie et de Ceylan. Nidification des Polyrhachis. Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 45: 369-407.
• Forel A. 1910. Glanures myrmécologiques. Ann. Soc. Entomol. Belg. 54: 6-32.
• Forel A. 1910. Zoologische und anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise im westlichen und zentralen Südafrika ausgeführt in den Jahren 1903-1905 von Dr. Leonhard Schultze. Vierter Band. Systematik und Tiergeographie. D) Formicidae. Denkschriften der Medizinisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Jena 16: 1-30.
• Forel, A.. "Fourmis de la faune méditerranéenne récoltées par MM. U. et J. Sahlberg." Revue Suisse de Zoologie 21 (1913): 427-438.
• Forel, A.. "Miscellanea myrmécologiques." Revue Suisse de Zoologie 12 (1904): 1-52.
• Goetsch, W. 1942. "Beiträge zur Biologie spanischer Ameisen." EOS (Revista española de entomología) 18: 175-241.
• Hassanein A. H. M. 1990. Study of Species Dorylus fulvus Westwood (Subfamily: Dorylinae) in Libya. Journal of King Abdulaziz University , Educational Sciences 3, 1.
• IZIKO South Africa Museum Collection
• Kiran K., and C. Karaman. 2012. First annotated checklist of the ant fauna of Turkey (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Zootaxa 3548: 1-38.
• Kone M., S. Konate, K. Yeo, P. K. Kouassi, and K. E. Linsenmair. 2012. Changes in ant communities along an age gradient of cocoa cultivation in the Oumé region, central Côte d’Ivoire. Entomological Science 15: 324–339.
• Kugler J. 1988. The zoogeography of Israel. 9. The zoogeography of social insects of Israel and Sinai. Monographiae biologicae 62: 251-275.
• Medler J. T. 1980: Insects of Nigeria - Check list and bibliography. Mem. Amer. Ent. Inst. 30: i-vii, 1-919.
• Menozzi C. 1930. Formiche della Somalia italiana meridionale. Memorie della Società Entomologica Italiana. 9: 76-130.
• Menozzi C. 1934. Reperti mirmecofaunistici raccolti dal Prof. L di Caporiacco nelle oasi di Cufra e in altre localita del deserto Libico. Atti della Societa dei Naturalisti e Matematici di Modena (6)13(65): 153-166
• Ortiz, F. J., and A. Tinaut. "Introducción al conocimiento de las hormigas de la provincia de Almería." Publicaciones del Instituto de Estudios Almerienses. Boletín (Ciencias) 8 (1988): 223-231.
• Rasheed M. T., I. Bodlah, A. G. Fareen, A. A. Wachkoo, X. Huang, and S. A. Akbar. 2019. A checklist of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Pakistan. Sociobiology 66(3): 426-439.
• Santschi, F.. "Quelques fourmis nord-africaines [FALTAN PÁGINAS]." Bulletin de la Société d' Histoire naturelle de l' Afrique du Nord 17 (1926): 229-236.
• Tohme G. 1996. Formicidae. Etude de la diversité biologique n° 4 . Ministère de l’Agriculture à Beyrouth (Eds.). P85-87.
• Tohme G., and H. Tohme. 2014. Nouvelles liste des especes de fourmis du Liban (Hymenoptera, Formicoidea). Lebanese Science Journal 15(1): 133-141.
• Weber N. A. 1952. Observations on Baghdad ants. Baghdad: The Trading and Printing Co., 30 pp.
• Wheeler W. M. 1922. Ants of the American Museum Congo expedition. A contribution to the myrmecology of Africa. VIII. A synonymic list of the ants of the Ethiopian region. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 45: 711-1004
• Yeo K., S. Konate, S. Tiho, and S. K. Camara. 2011. Impacts of land use types on ant communities in a tropical forest margin (Oumé - Cote d'Ivoire). African Journal of Agricultural Research 6(2): 260-274.